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Debate about the German responsibility in World War I
The war guilt question (German: Kriegsschuldfrage) is the public debate that took place in Germany for the most part during the Weimar Republic, to establish
War_guilt_question
Reprisal State responsibility War crime War Guilt Clause War guilt question Wiedergutmachung Vergangenheitsbewältigung White guilt Zero hour (1945) Beattie
German_collective_guilt
Beginning of the 1919 treaty's reparations section
Article 231, often known as the war guilt clause (German: Kriegsschuldklausel), was the opening article of the reparations section of the Treaty of Versailles
Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles
Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles
5th century BC history book by Thucydides
The History of the Peloponnesian War (/pɛləpəˈniːʃən/) is a historical account of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), which was fought between the Peloponnesian
History of the Peloponnesian War
History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War
Purported ancient tribal confederation of the Late Bronze Age
Orientalists. Since the early 1990s, however, it has been brought into question by a number of scholars. The historical narrative stems primarily from
Sea_Peoples
The total number of military and civilian casualties in World War I is estimated to be 15 to 22 million deaths[failed verification] and about 21 million
World_War_I_casualties
War Guilt and the War's Origins". German History. 25 (1): 78–95. doi:10.1177/0266355407071695. Mombauer, Annika. The origins of the First World War:
Causes_of_World_War_I
Reinterpretation of a historical account
of American Historians Magazine of History See Selig Adler, "The War-Guilt Question and American Disillusionment, 1918–1928", Journal of Modern History
Historical_revisionism
Mid-19th century debate about the unification of Germany
Germany German nationalism in Austria War guilt question Billinger, Robert D. (1991). Metternich and the German Question: States' Rights and Federal Duties
German_question
Whether Jesus was a historical figure
scholarship ignores the non-existence hypothesis and its arguments, as the question of historicity was generally settled in scholarship in the early 20th century
Historicity_of_Jesus
Argument by historian Frederick Jackson Turner
established churches and an aristocracy that owned most of the land. The question is whether their frontiers were powerful enough to overcome conservative
Frontier_Thesis
Branch of academic disciplines
www.ala.org. Retrieved May 24, 2025. "Accreditation Frequently Asked Questions | ALA". www.ala.org. Retrieved May 18, 2024. McCook, Kathleen de la Peña
Library and information science
Library_and_information_science
Study of the past
Historical research often starts with a research question to define the scope of the inquiry. Some research questions focus on a simple description of what happened
History
1913–1924 Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian genocides
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Late_Ottoman_genocides
Theory in German historiography
often held to have succeeded in reviving the debate on the question of a German collective guilt, and, in Germany, of bringing many Germans to a modern confrontation
Sonderweg
2013, pp. 10–14. Lewkowicz, Nicolas (2008). The German question and the origins of the Cold War. IPOC. ISBN 978-8-895-14527-3. Mastny 1996, pp. 3–4: "now
Historiography of the Cold War
Historiography_of_the_Cold_War
Israeli historians who have challenged traditional versions of Israeli history
Efraim Karsh has accused them of ignoring questions that he says are critical: namely, who started the war, what their intentions were, who was forced
New_Historians
Medieval Christian military campaigns (722–1492)
them, as the name suggests. One of the first Spanish intellectuals to question the idea of a "reconquest" that lasted for eight centuries was José Ortega
Reconquista
Causes of the conflict
intervention in the American War of Independence and the Seven Years' War, and underlying issues such as an inadequate taxation system. The War of Independence alone
Causes of the French Revolution
Causes_of_the_French_Revolution
Societal activities for coping with the past
the former homes of concentration camp victims Pact of forgetting War guilt question A compound noun of die Vergangenheit, 'the past', and Bewältigung
Vergangenheitsbewältigung
Repetition of similar events in history
Crimean War; the German Empire and the First World War; the Soviet Union and the Cuban Missile Crisis; the United States and the Vietnam War. One "minor
Historical_recurrence
Term for the Early Middle Ages
"the darkest of the Dark Ages". The term "Dark Ages" was increasingly questioned from the mid-twentieth century as archaeological, historical and literary
Dark_Ages_(historiography)
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Historical rankings of prime ministers of Canada
Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada
accept liability for the harm done to the Allies during World War I, and the War Guilt Clause was the basis for reparations to be paid to the Allies,
Causes_of_World_War_II
Stone, bronze and iron ages of pre-history
them to be implements and weapons or parts of them. Mercati posed the question to himself, why would anyone prefer to manufacture artefacts of stone rather
Three-age_system
Approach to historiography
of the state", a project gravely disrupted by the First World War and renewed questions on "the pretensions of the state as an avatar of social harmony"
Whig_history
Science of arranging events in order of occurrence
potentially be used to date the Lydian War because the eclipse took place during the middle of an important battle in that war. Likewise, various eclipses and
Chronology
Study of language in historical sources
was abandoned as a consequence of anti-German feelings following World War I. Most continental European countries still maintain the term to designate
Philology
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Construction of the Egyptian pyramids
Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids
Theory of generational cycles
during a time when the viability of mercantilism and imperialism was being questioned both in Europe and the Americas. Relying on Enlightenment philosophy,
Strauss–Howe generational theory
Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
Scholar who deals with the exploration and presentation of history
let alone a subject as highly charged as "the objectivity question," was out of the question. The profession was as described in the last verse of the
Historian
Stages of human existence according to Greco-Roman mythology
Age. Men of the Bronze Age were hardened and tough, and the deed of Ares (war) and violence were their passion. Zeus created these humans out of the ash
Ages_of_Man
greatness taken February 2–5, 2011, asked 1,015 American adults the following question: "Who do you regard as the greatest United States president?" Ronald Reagan
Historical rankings of presidents of the United States
Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States
Economic gap between northern and southern Italy
In Italian historiography, the southern question (Italian: questione meridionale) is the perception, dating back to the aftermath of the unification of
Southern_question
Assertion made about Chinese history
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Five thousand years of Chinese civilization
Five_thousand_years_of_Chinese_civilization
Legacy of French general and statesman
Question of Cultural Imperialism and the Napoleonic Empire.” Historical Journal 51: 1 (2008): 215–50. JSTOR 20175154 Forrest, Alan, et al. eds. War Memories:
Legacy_of_Napoleon
Distortion of historical record
during World War II), had embraced Croatian nationalism and published Horrors of War: Historical Reality and Philosophy, in which he questioned the official
Historical_negationism
Events following the conclusion of the Falklands War in Argentina
The aftermath of the 1982 Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina affected world geopolitics, the local political culture in Argentina
Aftermath of the Falklands War
Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War
Territorial dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom
remained a pending question between the two governments. Monson rejected this view, citing earlier British statements that the question had already been
Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute
Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute
Jesus as a historical person
historical figures is never questioned." There is no indication that writers in antiquity who opposed Christianity questioned the existence of Jesus. There
Historical_Jesus
Study of stamps and postal history and other related items
demand for 'old stamps', including those from before the American Civil War. Some authors believe that the first philatelist appeared on the day of the
Philately
First-hand account of information
Primary sources, whether accurate or not, offer new input into historical questions and most modern history revolves around heavy use of archives and special
Primary_source
Impact of German philosopher
disregarding the historical variants of Nietzschean anarchism. This calls into question the innovative potential of post-anarchism." Some hypothesize on certain
Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche
Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche
Era in Chinese history (c. 1839–1940s)
concept for a period in history beginning with the end of the First Opium War (1839–1842), and terminating with the establishment of the People's Republic
Century_of_humiliation
1910s and 1920s in Ireland
narratives exist for the historic events in question; nationalist perspectives are further divided by the Civil War, which ended the revolutionary period.
Irish_revolutionary_period
Short polemical book published in 1940
sixtieth anniversary in 2000. The book's arguments and conclusions have been questioned by politicians and historians. In 1945, Quintin Hogg, MP, wrote The Left
Guilty_Men
1940–41 conflict in French Indochina
The Franco-Thai War (October 1940 – 28 January 1941, Thai: กรณีพิพาทอินโดจีน, romanized: Karani Phiphat Indochin; French: Guerre franco-thaïlandaise)
Franco-Thai_War
Historical actuality of persons or events
historicity identifies human beings as unique and concrete historical beings. Questions regarding historicity concern not just the issue of "what really happened"
Historicity
Mathematical modeling of historical processes
preclude the inclusion of human agency in its explanatory theories. Such questions can be explored with agent-based computer simulations.[citation needed]
Cliodynamics
German jurist (1877–1940)
the parliamentary investigative committee on the question of Germany's guilt in triggering World War I became known. Contrary to the prevailing opinion
Hermann_Kantorowicz
Governmental publication of diplomatic and political content
Imanuel (1967). Gutachten zur Kriegsschuldfrage 1914 [Report on the War guilt question 1914] (in German). Frankfurt: Europäische Verlagsanstalt. OCLC 654661194
Color_book
Study of history from a global perspective
history has a scope far beyond historians' traditional focus on politics, wars, and diplomacy, taking in a panoply of subjects like gender history, social
World_history_(field)
[citation needed] The respondents were asked, among other historical questions, to rate all the 20th-century prime ministers in terms of their success
Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom
Approach to the study of history
cultivates the idea that those in power deserve to lead and shouldn't be questioned because they have the unique traits that make them suited for the position
Great_man_theory
Document written by hand
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Manuscript
European cultural period of the 14th to 17th centuries
Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation. Some observers have questioned whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance" from the Middle Ages
Renaissance
Place in which evidence of past activity is preserved
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Archaeological_site
Comparison of genocides
operations. The genocide was known as the Final Solution to the Jewish Question. Historian Francis Nicosia writes that the Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust
1971 national event in Iran
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire
2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire
Period of European global exploration
against the rule of Philip II of Spain leading to the Eighty Years' War. The war between England and Spain also broke out. In 1580, Philip II became King
Age_of_Discovery
Accumulation of historical records
result of being handled. The concept of counter-archiving brings into question what tends to be considered archivable and what is therefore selected to
Archive
settler colonial analysis is limited, especially when it comes to the question of decolonization. Historian Nur Masalha says, "The Palestinians share
Zionism as settler colonialism
Zionism_as_settler_colonialism
Objects used by humans
periods of time. However, even deeper questions can be answered through this type of analysis; these questions can revolve around topics that include
Artifact_(archaeology)
Historiographical debate
Japanese war crimes Jews as the chosen people List of ethnic cleansing campaigns List of genocides Racism in Israel Racism in Jewish communities War crimes
Holocaust_uniqueness_debate
Recently invented cultural practices perceived as old
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Invented_tradition
Biography of a saint or religious figure
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Hagiography
Study of language change over time
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Historical_linguistics
Marxist theory of history and society
maintain the existing property relations. Later interpretations have questioned the suitability of the base-superstructure metaphor as a literal description
Historical_materialism
Methods for estimating a realistic date for an event or object
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Chronological_dating
Political myth in Central and Eastern Europe glorifying Habsburg rule
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Habsburg_myth
Concept in history of science
its Blessed Founder most earnestly condemned on fetich and subtlety and war and pomp it has undermined servitude, mitigated tyranny, given hope to the
Conflict_thesis
European cultural movement
of religious dogma—an attitude captured by Kant's essay Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?, where the phrase sapere aude ('dare to know')
Age_of_Enlightenment
Pivotal event in 1861–1865 conflict
The turning point of the American Civil War refers to a battle or other development after which it became increasingly likely that the Union would prevail
Turning point of the American Civil War
Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War
Genre of historiography
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Popular_history
Study of the methods used by historians
historiography of the First World War in recent years has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation
Historiography
Techniques used by historians
picture of past events and environments. In the philosophy of history, the question of the nature, and the possibility, of a sound historical method is raised
Historical_method
especially of the administration of US President Jimmy Carter regarding the question of human rights in Iran, and in strengthened economic ties between the
Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution
Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_Revolution
1919–1932 investigation in Germany
The Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I was a parliamentary committee in Weimar Germany that was tasked with investigating the events that had
Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I
Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I
Causes of 1870–1871 war
the Franco-Prussian War are deeply rooted in the events surrounding German unification. In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War (1866), Prussia had
Causes of the Franco-Prussian War
Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War
Dynasties of China ruled by non-Han ethnicities
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Conquest_dynasty
Model of American politics
leadup to the American Civil War) and ended in the 1890s. The issues of focus during this time: Slavery, the civil war, Reconstruction, race, and monetary
Political eras of the United States
Political_eras_of_the_United_States
Fundamental change in ideas and practices within a scientific discipline
rules and thus defines a coherent tradition of investigation. Thus the question is for Kuhn to investigate by means of the paradigm what makes possible
Paradigm_shift
Chinese term for various foreigners living outside the borders of Ancient China
uses Siyi four times. The affair [presenting Rong prisoners and spoils of war to Duke Zhuang] was contrary to rule. When a prince has gained success over
Four_Barbarians
Mixed-race people of Spanish colonial regions in the 17th and 18th centuries
colonial territory that is now Mexico and Central America) during the Mexican War of Independence, race and racial distinctions were an important issue and
Casta
Historical period (1789 to 1914)
onset of the French Revolution in 1789 and ending with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It was coined by the Soviet writer Ilya Ehrenburg, and later popularized
Long_nineteenth_century
Type of historical investigation
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Prosopography
Alleged anti-Spanish historiography
theory, Protestant propaganda published during the Hispano-Dutch War and the Anglo-Spanish War against the Catholic monarchs of the 16th century fostered an
Black_Legend
Book for recording activities
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Logbook
German historian (1908–1999)
of the causes of World War I. In the early 1960s Fischer advanced the thesis that responsibility for the outbreak of the war rested solely on Imperial
Fritz_Fischer_(historian)
Prophecy recorded after the fact
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Vaticinium_ex_eventu
Term for the ongoing trauma of the Palestinian people
Reparations War guilt question Article 231 Reichstag inquiry Interwar period Burning of Smyrna Polish–Soviet War Causes Spanish Civil War Background World War II
Ongoing_Nakba
Study of family lineage and history
defined as much by one's kin network as by individual achievement, and the question "Who are you?" would be answered by a description of father, mother, and
Genealogy
Study of the history of human ideas and of intellectuals
Markwell, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace (2006) Oxford University Press. Richter, Melvin. "Begriffsgeschichte
Intellectual_history
History taken verbally and recorded or transcribed
preservation. Oral historians generally prefer to ask open-ended questions and avoid leading questions that encourage people to say what they think the interviewer
Oral_history
Concept of Indian history
main religious & spiritual ideologies of Ancient India. Critics have questioned Bronkhorst's assertion of a stark cultural division between East and West
Greater_Magadha
Problems in reconstructing a historical and philosophical image of Socrates
In historical scholarship, the Socratic problem (also called Socratic question) concerns attempts at reconstructing a historical and philosophical image
Socratic_problem
economic history is driven by continued interest in major policy-relevant questions about economic growth and development. MIT economist Peter Temin noted
Economic_history
Negationist myth of the American Civil War
South's loss in what they viewed as a holy war left these white Southerners facing inadequacy, failure, and guilt. They faced them by forming what C. Vann
Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy
Preservation of items of historical significance
garden conservation List of historic houses Ship of Theseus, philosophical question about preservation Space archaeology Sustainable preservation wabi-sabi
Historic_preservation
German debate on Nazi motives and uniqueness, and guilt of post-Nazi Germany
therefore Germans should not bear any special burden of guilt for the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question". Nolte argued that there was no moral difference
Historikerstreit
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