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Classification of natural languages
A dependent-marking language has grammatical markers of agreement and case government between the words of phrases that tend to appear more on dependents
Dependent-marking_language
Grammar where inflection "agrees" with primary components of phrases
modifiers or dependents. Many languages employ both head-marking and dependent-marking, and some languages double up and are thus double-marking. The concept
Head-marking_language
Language with no grammatical marks on dependents or modifiers
A zero-marking language is one with no grammatical marks on either the dependents (or the modifiers) or the heads (or the nuclei) that show the relationship
Zero-marking_language
on the modifiers or dependents. Pervasive double-marking is rather rare, but instances of double-marking occur in many languages. For example, in Turkish
Double-marking_language
Highly inflected language with many morphemes per word
phrases and their constituents by marking the head noun with agreement morphemes. There are some dependent-marking languages that may be considered to be polysynthetic
Polysynthetic_language
Northeast Caucasian language native to Russia
however, do not take these prefixes. Chechen is an ergative, dependent-marking language using eight cases (absolutive, genitive, dative, ergative, allative
Chechen_language
Kipchak Turkic language
Kazakh is a nominative-accusative, head-final, left-branching, dependent-marking language. Kazakh has no noun class or gender system. Nouns are declined
Kazakh_language
Romance language of the West Iberian group
Navarro-Aragonese. It is an inflecting, fusional, head-initial and dependent-marking language. Its word order is subject–verb–object (in declarative sentences
Asturian_language
Part of speech that conveys an action
the subject—it is a strictly dependent-marking language. On the other hand, Basque, Georgian, and some other languages, have polypersonal agreement:
Verb
Type of marking in linguistics
marking is to head-marking languages what possessive marking is to dependent-marking languages. For example, in English, a dependent-marking language
Pertensive
Free or bound morpheme
word Dependent-marking language Head-marking language Double-marking language Zero-marking language Maddieson, Ian. "Locus of Marking: Whole-Language Typology"
Marker_(linguistics)
Type of grammatical construction
the head (or modified noun) and the dependent (or modifier noun). In dependent-marking languages, a dependent genitive noun modifies the head by expressing
Genitive_construction
Class of modern grammatical theories
continuum. Nichols, J. 1986. Head-marking and dependent-marking languages. Language 62, 56–119. Ninio, A. 2006. Language and the learning curve: A new theory
Dependency_grammar
Distinction between third person pronouns
Ingush, a heavily dependent-marking language, is an exception to the generalization that the obviative occurs in head-marking languages. Obviation is not
Obviative
Proposed parameter in linguistics
languages tend to be head-initial languages. Dependency grammar Dependent-marking language Double-marking language Government (linguistics) Government
Head-directionality_parameter
Language where one kind of inflection indicates multiple changes of aspect
However, many descendants of fusional languages tend to lose their case marking. In most Romance and Germanic languages, including Modern English (with the
Fusional_language
1992 non-fiction work by Johanna Nichols
sample of the world's languages (one per stock) and tabulates typological characteristics such as: Head-marking vs. dependent-marking Morphological complexity
Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time
Linguistic_Diversity_in_Space_and_Time
Language with a very low morpheme per word ratio
Moluccan Malay Papuan Malay Analytic language Free morpheme Linguistic typology Synthetic language Zero-marking language "A Computerized Identification System
Isolating_language
Process of word formation, by alteration to express grammatical categories
well-known dependent-marking languages (such as the Indo-European languages, or Japanese[citation needed]). In dependent-marking languages, nouns in adpositional
Inflection
Language whose grammar rarely uses word inflection
Kra-Dai languages Thai Lao Hmong-Mien languages Hmong Maybrat Mixtec Sango Yoruba Auxiliary verb Free morpheme Isolating language Zero-marking language Synthetic
Analytic_language
Aboriginal Australian language
as [ɟ]. Typologically, Umpila is an agglutinative, suffixing, dependent-marking language, with a preference for Subject-Object-Verb constituent order.
Umpila_language
West Germanic language
English is either the official language, or one of the official languages, of 57 sovereign states and 30 dependent territories, making it the most geographically
English_language
Grammatical relationship between arguments
Nichols, J. (1986). Head-marking and dependent-marking grammar. Language, 62(1), 56-119. Comrie, B. (2013). Alignment of Case Marking of Full Noun Phrases
Morphosyntactic_alignment
Primary part of a grammatical phrase
common to classify language morphology according to whether a phrase is head-marking or dependent-marking. A given dependency is head-marking, if something
Head_(linguistics)
Australian Aboriginal language
to the University of Melbourne School of Languages and Linguistics, "Gurindji is a dependent marking language. Word order is relatively free, though constrained
Gurindji_language
Feature of language
than in dependent-marking SOV languages, and hence they usually follow the nouns. In most SOV languages with a significant level of head-marking or verb-like
Subject–object–verb word order
Subject–object–verb_word_order
Linguistic feature
while West Indian creole languages refer to plural objects without such morphology (I find one dozen mango). The lack of marking to show grammatical category
Zero-marking_in_English
Pattern relating to the subject and object of verbs
transitive verb. In ergative–absolutive languages with grammatical case, the ergative case refers to the marking of agents of transitive verbs, distinguishing
Ergative–absolutive_alignment
Type of synthetic language
An agglutinative language is a type of language that primarily forms words by stringing together morphemes (word parts)—each typically representing a single
Agglutinative_language
Sentence structure; the default word order in English
SVO languages of West Africa, the Hmong–Mien languages, some Sino-Tibetan languages, and European languages like Swedish, Danish, Lithuanian, and Latvian
Subject–verb–object word order
Subject–verb–object_word_order
Type of language morphology
tense, mood, person, gender, number, and evidential marking. Bulgarian is a fusional inflecting language with some analyticity (including prepositions in
Synthetic_language
Smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition
independents with or without dependents. Some dependent clauses are non-finite, i.e. they do not contain any element/verb marking a specific tense. A clause
Clause
Categorization of nouns and modifiers by function
dative form. More formally, case has been defined as "a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship they bear to their heads". Cases
Grammatical_case
Indigenous Australian language
displays characteristics of a head-marking language. However, Wagiman also behaves as a dependent-marking language, in that nominals are case marked as
Wagiman_language
Concept of sentence structure in linguistics
morphology and are more dependent on syntax to encode meaning and grammatical relationships. If a language relies less on overt case marking, alignment may be
Nominative–accusative alignment
Nominative–accusative_alignment
System of word ordering
Mesoamerican languages, such as the Mayan languages and Oto-Manguean languages many Nilotic languages (including Nandi and Maasai) Many languages, such as
Verb–subject–object word order
Verb–subject–object_word_order
Use of grammar in a language to express number
Elements marking number may appear on nouns and pronouns in dependent-marking languages or on verbs and adjectives in head-marking languages. In the English
Grammatical_number
Language classification
most languages, it does occur as the unmarked or neutral order in a few Amazonian languages, including Xavante and Apurinã. In many other languages, OSV
Object–subject–verb word order
Object–subject–verb_word_order
Way of classifying the world's languages
classifying the languages of the world that groups languages according to their common morphological structures. The field organizes languages on the basis
Morphological_typology
Structured system of communication
exists and is used by others. Language is therefore dependent on communities of speakers in which children learn language from their elders and peers and
Language
Proposed concept in linguistic typology
of marking the proximate–obviative distinction between two (or more) third-person arguments of a sentence. However, there are at least two languages with
Direct–inverse_alignment
Study of words and their formation
its dependent noun phrase as an instrument and 'his' denotes a possession relation, would consist of two words or even one word in many languages. Unlike
Morphology_(linguistics)
First-person plural personal pronoun in English
the accusative (objective; also called the 'oblique'.) form our: the dependent genitive (possessive) form ours: the independent genitive (possessive)
We
Class of language where a sentence subject is not required
In linguistic typology, a null-subject language is a language whose grammar permits an independent clause to lack an explicit subject; such a clause is
Null-subject_language
Grammatical structure
any other verb argument. In many languages, however, especially rigidly left-branching, dependent-marking languages with prenominal relative clauses,
Relative_clause
Type of morphosyntactic alignment in linguistic typology
inanimate) Specifically, ergative languages with split case marking are more likely to use ergative rather than accusative marking for NPs lower down the hierarchy
Active–stative_alignment
Language family of the Arctic and sub-Arctic
ergative–absolutive in nouns and in Yup'ik languages, also in verbal person marking. All Eskaleut languages have obligatory verbal agreement with agent and patient in
Eskaleut_languages
Order of syntactic constituents
the most frequent and obligatory when case marking fails to disambiguate argument roles. Just as languages may have different word orders in different
Word_order
Rare permutation of word order
of case marking such as Romanian, Croatian, Basque, Esperanto, Hungarian, Finnish, Russian, and to some extent German and Dutch. Some languages like Swedish
Object–verb–subject word order
Object–verb–subject_word_order
Subfamily of the Japonic languages
Many Ryukyuan languages have contrastive pitch accent. Ryukyuan languages are generally subject–object–verb (SOV) order, dependent-marking, modifier-head
Ryukyuan_languages
Language family
ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8. Nichols, Johanna (March 1986). "Head-Marking and Dependent-Marking Grammar". Language. 62 (1). Linguistic Society of America: 56–119. doi:10
Northwest_Caucasian_languages
Mayan language spoken in Guatemala and Mexico
to clauses in dependent contexts in which aspect is not overtly marked. The following example shows JOS’s use of extended ergative marking (in bold) on
Mam_language
Feature in the typology of certain languages
languages. Languages with such a marking are known as split-S languages and are formally a subtype of active languages. Pragmatic considerations or for
Split_ergativity
Language in which certain pronouns may sometimes be omitted
would be expected from the generally polysynthetic and head-marking character of the languages. That generally allows eliding of all object pronouns as well
Pro-drop_language
Type of morphosyntactic alignment in linguistic typology
and agreement marking: A functional perspective', in Simon-Vandenberg, A.M., Kristin Davidse, and Dirk Noel (eds.), Reconnecting Language: Morphology and
Tripartite_alignment
Northwest Caucasian language of Abkhazia
within verb constructions rather than through overt case marking as most other ergative languages do. All Latin transliterations in this section utilize
Abkhaz_language
Closed lexical category of the English language
adjectives, to the point where some authors describe it as an analytic language, but the Modern English system of personal pronouns has preserved some
Personal_pronouns_in_English
Morphological form of a noun
European languages in that it is the head (modified) noun rather than the dependent (modifying) noun which is marked. However, in Semitic languages with grammatical
Construct_state
Luo language spoken in part of South Sudan and Sudan
is characterized by head marking: pertensive and construct-state are both inflections that mark the head, not the dependent. For example, English has
Shilluk_language
Celtic language indigenous to the island of Ireland
Celtic language within the Indo-European language family native to the Irish people and indigenous to the island of Ireland. It was the first language of
Irish_language
Endangered Aboriginal language of Australia's Northern Territory
optional. The language is mostly dependent-marking (1), but also has no marking (2) and head-marking features (3). (1) dependent-marking: possession Doro-ngayi
Malak-Malak_language
Large language family of Africa and West Asia
pejorative, and/or singulative marker in some languages. Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender
Afroasiatic_languages
Algonquian language of the Midwestern US
Miami–Illinois apart from many other Algonquian languages, where deletion of word-final vowels has obscured gender marking. Gender is usually predictable from nature
Miami–Illinois_language
Grammar of South Athabaskan languages
polysynthetic, nominative–accusative head-marking languages. These languages are argued to be non-configurational languages. The canonical word order is SOV,
Southern_Athabaskan_grammar
System responsible for combining morphemes into complex structures
alignment of the language. The description of grammatical relations can also reflect transitivity, passivization, and head-dependent-marking or other agreement
Syntax
Extinct language in Egypt
letters. The Egyptian language, or ancient Egyptian (r n kmt; 'speech of Egypt'), is an extinct branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family that was spoken
Egyptian_language
Polish linguist
excentric language types, which is widely recognized as a precursor to the well-known distinction between head-marking and dependent-marking languages. He is
Tadeusz_Milewski
Linguistic phenomenon whereby a language allows multiple cases suffixed on the same head
c-commanded by the head, the case marking associated with the head is assigned to the nominal. Another competing model is the Dependent model, which proposes that
Suffixaufnahme
Ancestor of the Indo-European languages
descendants, was a highly inflected, fusional language. Suffixation and ablaut were the main methods of marking inflection, both for nominals and verbs. The
Proto-Indo-European_language
Extinct Eskimo–Aleut language
express many meanings, too. In an analogous way, in Sireniki Eskimo language, the "dependent action" (expressed by the adverbial participle in the sentence
Sirenik_language
monotransitive verbs, and the themes get distinct marking. Secundative languages contrast with indirective languages, where the recipient is treated in a special
Secundative_language
French-based creole language spoken in Seychelles
with either the express lack of a marking; or the words li, mekor, and limenm. There is some variation in the language spoken in the Seychelles based on
Seychellois_Creole
Indo-Aryan language
endonym Bangla, is a classical Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken by the
Bengali_language
Mixe–Zoque language of southern Mexico
of both the person marking and the aspect marking (Clark (1961:195) with the result that the inverse forms have no distinct dependent form. Lenguas indígenas
Sayula_Popoluca
General-purpose programming language
C is a general-purpose programming language created in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie. By design, C gives the programmer relatively direct access to the features
C_(programming_language)
Language of the Yupik family
The language grammatically distinguishes three numbers: singular, dual, and plural. There is no marking of grammatical gender in the language, nor are
Central_Alaskan_Yupʼik
Type of word order
listener is dependent upon the relevance of "John". In their 1979 study, Derbyshire and Pullum suggest that the scarcity of OS languages (and specifically
Object–subject_word_order
Syllable-based writing system
vowels have status equal to consonants, and with an abjad, in which vowel marking is absent, partial, or optional. In less formal contexts, all three types
Abugida
Language family of the Andes in South America
marker does not appear at all. In all Quechuan languages the evidential will not appear in a dependent clause. No example was given to depict this omission
Quechuan_languages
Branch of linguistics
some languages with bound case markings for nouns, such as Language X, varying degrees of freedom in constituent order are observed. These languages exhibit
Linguistic_typology
Paleosiberian language family
or Amuric, is a small language family, often portrayed as a language isolate, of two or three mutually unintelligible languages spoken by the Nivkh people
Nivkh_languages
Indigenous language spoken in parts of South America
in the table below: Yanomaman languages are SOV, suffixing, predominantly head-marking with elements of dependent-marking. Its typology is highly polysynthetic
Yanomaman_languages
Word order in which the verb comes before the object
object. About 53% of documented languages have this order. For example, Japanese would be considered an OV language, and English would be considered
Verb–object_word_order
Latest stage of the Egyptian language
Afroasiatic language. It is a group of closely related Egyptian dialects, representing the most recent developments of the Egyptian language, and historically
Coptic_language
Grammatical phenomenon in Austronesian
Patient Voice and Instrument Voice. Unlike other languages presented here, Kelabit does not use case-marking or word-ordering strategies to indicate the subject
Symmetrical_voice
North Germanic language
person marking on verbs. Its word order is V2, with the finite verb always occupying the second slot in the sentence. Danish is a Germanic language of the
Danish_language
General-purpose programming language
(/ˌsiː ˈʃɑːrp/ see SHARP) is a general-purpose high-level programming language supporting multiple paradigms. C# encompasses static typing, strong typing
C Sharp (programming language)
C_Sharp_(programming_language)
pivot is the verb argument around which sentences "revolve" in a given language. This usually means the following: If the verb has more than zero arguments
Syntactic_pivot
Austronesian language
been analyzed acoustically. Unlike other Philippine languages, Tboli does not make use of case-marking articles. Plurality is marked by the article kem preceding
Tboli_language
West Slavic language
a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group, written in Latin script. Spoken by over 12 million people including second-language speakers, it serves
Czech_language
Oghuz Turkic language of southwestern Iran
in front syllables. Qashqai follows common Turkic syntax features: dependent marking, head-final within unmarked phrases, free word order with SOV preferred
Qashqai_language
Phrase in linguistics
"restricted" meaning it is marked explicitly by a preposition or a case marking). Themes map to [-r], second themes map to [+o] and non-themes map to [-o]
Theta_role
Linguistic classification
languages (a V1 language being a language where the word order is obligatorily or predominantly verb-initial). V1 clauses only occur in V1 languages and
Verb-initial_word_order
Yuman language spoken in Mexico and US
Case marking is obligatory on demonstratives and noun phrases marked with -pu, but is optional elsewhere. Tiipai exhibits, like other Yuman languages, a
Tiipai_language
Koine language of Northern Andamanese
system. It is a head-marking polysynthetic and agglutinative language with a SOV pattern. It has a very elaborate system for marking inalienability, with
Mixed_Great_Andamanese
Language family of Northern Eurasia
Finnic languages have lost palatalization, but several of them have reacquired it, so Finnic palatalization (where extant) was originally dependent on the
Uralic_languages
Languages which place objects before verbs
In linguistics, languages with object–verb word order are those in which the object comes before the verb. Such languages compose approximately forty-seven
Object–verb_word_order
Witotoan language of Colombia and Peru
marking) and some elements of agreement marked on the dependent element of a phrase (dependent marking). They are predominantly agglutinating with some fusion
Nonuya_language
Language of ancient Sumer and Babylon
romanized: eme-gir15, lit. 'native language') was the language of ancient Sumer. It is the oldest attested language, dating back to at least 3100 BC, perhaps
Sumerian_language
Endangered Uralic language of Scandinavia
used in adnominal possession and marks the dependent of postpositions. The illative is a spatial case marking the recipient; while the locative and elative
Southern_Sámi
DEPENDENT MARKING-LANGUAGE
DEPENDENT MARKING-LANGUAGE
Male
English
English surname transferred to forename use, from a form of the Old English surname Hearding, from heard, HARDING means "brave, hardy, strong."
Girl/Female
Tamil
Independent, Submissive, Willing, Dependent
Surname or Lastname
English
English : variant of Merlin.
Girl/Female
Tamil
Asritha | அஸà¯à®°à¯€à®¤à®¾
Dependent
Asritha | அஸà¯à®°à¯€à®¤à®¾
Girl/Female
Swedish American Spanish Latin
Warring.
Female
English
Feminine form of Latin Martinus, MARTINA means "of/like Mars."Â
Surname or Lastname
English
English : habitational name from Barling in Essex.
Girl/Female
Hindu
Independent, Submissive, Willing, Dependent
Surname or Lastname
English
English : patronymic from Mann 1 and 2.Irish : adopted as an English equivalent of Gaelic Ó MainnÃn ‘descendant of MainnÃn’, probably an assimilated form of MainchÃn, a diminutive of manach ‘monk’. This is the name of a chieftain family in Connacht. It is sometimes pronounced Ó MaingÃn and Anglicized as Mangan.Anstice Manning, widow of Richard Manning of Dartmouth, England, came to MA with her children in 1679. Her great-great-grandson Robert, born at Salem, MA, in 1784, was the uncle and protector of author Nathaniel Hawthorne. Another early bearer of the relatively common British name was Jeffrey Manning, one of the earliest settlers in Piscataway township, Middlesex Co., NJ. His great-grandson James Manning (1738–91) was a founder and the first president of Rhode Island College (Brown University).
Surname or Lastname
English
English : variant of Markin.
Female
French
French feminine form of Latin Martinus, MARTINE means "of/like Mars."Â
Boy/Male
Australian, French, German, Italian, Latin, Portuguese, Spanish
Warrior of Mars; Warlike; Dedicated to Mars; Warring; Mars; Like Mars; Roman God of Mars
Surname or Lastname
English
English : habitational name from (East, South, and, formerly, West) Harting in West Sussex, named with an unattested Old English byname Heort ‘hart’ + -ingas, a suffix denoting ‘family, dependants, or followers’.North German (also Härting) : patronymic from Hart or Hardt 2.German : habitational name from any of several places so named in Bavaria or from Hartingen, near Diepholz, Lower Saxony.
Boy/Male
Latin Spanish Italian
Warring.
Girl/Female
Hindu
Independent, Submissive, Willing, Dependent
Male
Italian
Italian form of Latin Martinus, MARTINO means "of/like Mars."
Girl/Female
Indian
Dependent
Girl/Female
Tamil
Independent, Submissive, Willing, Dependent
Female
Hebrew
(×žÖ·×¨Ö°× Ö´×™× Ö¸×”) Hebrew name MARNINA means "rejoice."
Surname or Lastname
English
English : metronymic or patronymic from Markin.
DEPENDENT MARKING-LANGUAGE
DEPENDENT MARKING-LANGUAGE
Boy/Male
Christian & English(British/American/Australian)
Dark Skinned
Boy/Male
Tamil
Varchasv | வரà¯à®šà®¸à¯à®µ
Girl/Female
Tamil
Shadow
Boy/Male
Hindu, Indian
Lord Vishnu
Boy/Male
Indian
Good luck
Boy/Male
English French
Steward.
Boy/Male
Muslim/Islamic
Beautiful
Boy/Male
Biblical
Dust, lead.
Boy/Male
Indian, Punjabi, Sikh
Trustworthy
Female
Native American
Variant spelling of Native American Cherokee Awinita, AWENTIA means "fawn."
DEPENDENT MARKING-LANGUAGE
DEPENDENT MARKING-LANGUAGE
DEPENDENT MARKING-LANGUAGE
DEPENDENT MARKING-LANGUAGE
DEPENDENT MARKING-LANGUAGE
a.
Depending; pendent loosely; hanging; swinging.
a.
Marked by despondence; given to despondence; low-spirited; as, a despondent manner; a despondent prisoner.
n.
One who depends; one who is sustained by another, or who relies on another for support of favor; a hanger-on; a retainer; as, a numerous train of dependents.
a.
Dependent on one's self; self-depending; self-reliant.
a.
Not dependent; free; not subject to control by others; not relying on others; not subordinate; as, few men are wholly independent.
a.
Hanging down; as, a dependent bough or leaf.
n.
The act or state of depending; state of being dependent; a hanging down or from; suspension from a support.
n.
See Dependent, Dependence, Dependency.
a.
Depending on itself; independent.
n.
A thing hanging down; a dependence.
a.
Making defense.
a.
Supported from above; suspended; depending; pendulous; hanging; as, a pendent leaf.
a.
Relying on, or subject to, something else for support; not able to exist, or sustain itself, or to perform anything, without the will, power, or aid of something else; not self-sustaining; contingent or conditioned; subordinate; -- often with on or upon; as, dependent on God; dependent upon friends.
n.
A dependency; a dependent territory.
n.
That which depends; anything dependent or suspended; anything attached a subordinate to, or contingent on, something else.
n.
One who depends; a dependent.
a.
Affording a comfortable livelihood; as, an independent property.
n.
State of being dependent; dependence; state of being subordinate; subordination; concatenation; connection; reliance; trust.
adv.
In a dependent manner.
v. t.
A deponent verb.