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Lipid globule proposed as a precursor of living cells
A protocell (or protobiont) is a self-organized, membrane-bound or membraneless compartment that concentrates biomolecules, proposed as a rudimentary
Protocell
Interdisciplinary branch of biology and engineering
techniques. The protocell technique, however, also lends itself well to applications; similar to other synthetic biology byproducts, protocells could be employed
Synthetic_biology
lifelike behavior of laboratory-created protocells. Armstrong synthesized and filmed the protocells of Protocell Circus at the laboratory of the Bartlett
Protocell_Circus
Hypothetical stage in the early evolutionary history of life on Earth
limited resource conditions, the protocell reproductive rate would likely be inversely related to ploidy number. The protocell's fitness would be reduced by
RNA_world
Aqueous phase rich in macromolecules
proteinoid microspheres proposed to be primitive cells (protocells) on early Earth. Coacervate-like protocells are at the core of the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis
Coacervate
Proposed alternative scenarios related to abiogenesis
at the Yellowstone National Park. In 2011, Tadashi Sugawara created a protocell in hot water. Bruce Damer and David Deamer argue that cell membranes cannot
Alternative abiogenesis scenarios
Alternative_abiogenesis_scenarios
Synthetic proto-cells model
functional properties; that is, they are a model of primitive cells, or protocells. It was discovered in abiogenesis experiments conducted by Krishna Bahadur
Jeewanu
Engineered component of a biological cell
bottom-up approach to build an artificial cell would involve creating a protocell de novo, entirely from non-living materials. As the term "cell" implies
Artificial_cell
Life arising from non-living matter
efficient. The largest unanswered question in evolution is how simple protocells first arose and differed in reproductive contribution to the following
Abiogenesis
Change in the heritable traits of populations
problem Molecular evolution Astrobiology Phylogenetics Tree Polymorphism Protocell Systematics Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance Category Portal
Evolution
Hypothetical scenario for the origin of life
promote protocell growth as nucleotides also catalyze CO2 fixation. Strong nucleotide catalysis of fatty acids and amino acids slow down protocell growth
Iron–sulfur_world_hypothesis
Rock and sediment microstructure
are hypothesized (by some) to be a previously unknown form of life or protocells.[citation needed] It is a living organism (contains DNA or some analogue
Nanobe
Largest moon of Saturn
Conor A. (January 2025). "A proposed mechanism for the formation of protocell-like structures on Titan". International Journal of Astrobiology. 24 e7
Titan_(moon)
Spherical particle larger than nano particles but smaller than sand particles
and benserazide, Fluorouracil. Some refer to microspheres or protein protocells as small spherical units postulated by some scientists as a key stage
Microparticle
Life that has no cellular structure
particle Hypothetical types of biochemistry Nanobe Plasmid Pre-cell Prion Protocell "What is Non-Cellular Life?". Wise Geek. Conjecture Corporation. 2009
Non-cellular_life
Evolutionary origin and subsequent development of cells
much of the basic features provided by cell membranes. Proteinoid-based protocells enclosing RNA molecules could have been the first cellular life forms
Evolution_of_cells
Fissure in a planet's surface from which heated water emits
nucleotides within self-replicating protocells, where "Molecular crowding and phosphorylation in such confined, high-energy protocells could potentially promote
Hydrothermal_vent
Records of Earth's development
lipids and amino acids. It is believed that of this multiplicity of protocells, only one line survived. Current phylogenetic evidence suggests that the
History_of_Earth
Genus of fishes in South America
density and energy conversion efficiency. In 2009, they made synthetic protocells which can provide about a twentieth of the energy density of a lead–acid
Electric_eel
Logical fallacy
ISBN 9781133049753. OCLC 805951311. Bedau, Mark (2009). The ethics of protocells. Boston, Massachusetts; London, England: Mit Press. pp. 341. ISBN 978-0-262-01262-1
Argument_from_authority
Unicellular organism lacking a membrane-bound nucleus
life is that the first organisms were prokaryotes. These developed from protocells, while the eukaryotes arose later in the history of life, by symbiogenesis:
Prokaryote
proposed that they may have been precursors to the first living cells (protocells). The term was also used in the 1960s to describe peptides that are shorter
Proteinoid
Matter with biological processes
common ancestor from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism. In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal common
Life
Process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Transcription_(biology)
Any small, fluid-filled, spherical organelle enclosed by a membrane
biological catalysis were considered to be contained within vesicles (protocells) with membranes composed of fatty acids and related amphiphiles. Template-directed
Vesicle (biology and chemistry)
Vesicle_(biology_and_chemistry)
American biochemist (1912–1998)
and thermal energy, and created what he thought was the world's first protocell out of proteinoids and water. He called these globules "microspheres"
Sidney_W._Fox
Possible earliest ancestor of the LUCA ancestral cell
The introduction of a DNA-based system may have been as significant for protocells as later additions of chloroplasts or mitochondria through endosymbiosis
First universal common ancestor
First_universal_common_ancestor
Substance of biological origin that is soluble in nonpolar solvents
around the dissolved lipophilic molecule. The formation of lipids into protocell membranes represents a key step in models of abiogenesis, the origin of
Lipid
1543 anatomy books by Andreas Vesalius
of being Hierarchy of life Lamarckism One gene–one enzyme hypothesis Protocell RNA world Sequence hypothesis Spontaneous generation Related History of
De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem
De_Humani_Corporis_Fabrica_Libri_Septem
Living and non-living things on Earth
have been taken from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism. Although there is no universal agreement on the definition
Natural_environment
Science of synthetic life forms
Artificial gene synthesis Synthetic genomics Mycoplasma laboratorium Protocell Xenobiology Nucleic acid analogue Xeno nucleic acid Unnatural base pair
Xenobiology
Biological process
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
DNA_replication
Biological process
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Cell_division
problem Molecular evolution Astrobiology Phylogenetics Tree Polymorphism Protocell Systematics Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance Category Portal
Evolution_of_cetaceans
Ancestor of all current life on Earth
2022). "A biophysical basis for the emergence of the genetic code in protocells". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics. 1863 (8) 148597
Last universal common ancestor
Last_universal_common_ancestor
multiphenotypic population of pre-cells from which the precursor cells (protocells) of the three domains of life emerged. Thus, the formation of cells was
History_of_life
Hypothetical life before complete cells
The terms pre-cell (precell), proto-cell (protocell), etc. are frequently used to designate hypothetical ancestral entities precursing complete cells
Pre-cell
Spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater
low solubility in water. Pyrophosphite could have been present within protocells, however all modern life forms use pyrophosphate for energy storage. Kee
Hot_spring
Date Event 3.9 Bya The earliest life appears, possibly as protocells. Their genetic material was probably composed of RNA, capable of both self replication
Timeline_of_human_evolution
Cellular process of protein synthesis
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Translation_(biology)
Organism that consists of only one cell
Myxogastria. The origin of life is largely still a mystery. Primitive protocells are thought to be the precursors to today's unicellular organisms. In
Unicellular_organism
Canadian Artist
others, this research expanded to include chemically active systems and protocell-based experiments. Armstrong described the project as a "synthetic but
Philip_Beesley
Type of genetic engineering
Artificial gene synthesis Synthetic genomics Mycoplasma laboratorium Protocell Xenobiology Nucleic acid analogue Xeno nucleic acid Unnatural base pair
Genome_editing
American materials scientist and engineer
development of mesoporous silica–lipid hybrid nanoparticles known as protocells for targeted drug delivery. He is a member of the National Academy of
C._Jeffrey_Brinker
American theoretical physicist and astrobiologist
Gleiser, Marcelo; Walker, Sara Imari (2009-04-16). "Toward Homochiral Protocells in Noncatalytic Peptide Systems". Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres
Sara_Imari_Walker
Possible alternative biochemicals used by life forms
Conor A. (January 2025). "A proposed mechanism for the formation of protocell-like structures on Titan". International Journal of Astrobiology. 24 e7
Hypothetical types of biochemistry
Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
Type of behavior of a dynamical system
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Self-replication
Dangers presented by artificial and modified organisms
organisms for gene therapy; development of minimal cells and artificial protocells; and development of organisms based on alternative biochemistry. This
Hazards_of_synthetic_biology
Field of synthetic biology
Artificial gene synthesis Synthetic genomics Mycoplasma laboratorium Protocell Xenobiology Nucleic acid analogue Xeno nucleic acid Unnatural base pair
Synthetic_genomics
Branch of virology
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Synthetic_virology
Organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism
Species of bacteriumPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Protocell – Lipid globule proposed as a precursor of living cells Margulis L, Chapman
Endosymbiont
Subfield of biology
problem Molecular evolution Astrobiology Phylogenetics Tree Polymorphism Protocell Systematics Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance Category Portal
Ecological evolutionary developmental biology
Ecological_evolutionary_developmental_biology
Scientific assessments on the microbial habitability of Titan
Christian; Nixon, Conor A. (2025). "A proposed mechanism for the formation of protocell-like structures on Titan". International Journal of Astrobiology. 24.
Life_on_Titan
1949 scientific paper by Linus Pauling et al.
of being Hierarchy of life Lamarckism One gene–one enzyme hypothesis Protocell RNA world Sequence hypothesis Spontaneous generation Related History of
Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease
Sickle_Cell_Anemia,_a_Molecular_Disease
DNA that does not code for proteins
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Non-coding_DNA
Application of synthetic biology
Artificial gene synthesis Synthetic genomics Mycoplasma laboratorium Protocell Xenobiology Nucleic acid analogue Xeno nucleic acid Unnatural base pair
Synthetic_biological_circuit
Artificial gene synthesis Synthetic genomics Mycoplasma laboratorium Protocell Xenobiology Nucleic acid analogue Xeno nucleic acid Unnatural base pair
Open_synthetic_biology
Device used to produce electricity from light
1921. 1941 – Vadim Lashkaryov discovered p–n junctions in Cu2O and Ag2S protocells. 1946 – Russell Ohl patented the modern junction semiconductor solar cell
Solar_cell
Nanostructures of protein-polymer conjugates
biology, cell sorting, and clinical diagnostics. Microcapsules termed protocells prepared by polymer-protein hybrids are the hotspot of the research area
Polymer-protein_hybrid
American philosopher
based in Venice, Italy. M. A. Bedau and E. C. Parke, eds. The prospect of protocells: social and ethical implications of the recreation of life. Cambridge:
Mark_Bedau
British photographer (born 1977)
across the world. Toon co-produced Protocell Circus (2010). He edited, treated, subtitled and scored footage of protocells synthesised and filmed by Dr. Rachel
Michael_Simon_Toon
Field of technology
Centre for Living Technology (ECLT) in Venice, Italy in 2004. Also the Protocell Assembly project at Los Alamos National Laboratory, USA, was based on
Living_technology
Biological membrane structure
Irene A.; Walde, Peter (July 2010). "From Self-Assembled Vesicles to Protocells". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 2 (7) a002170. Bibcode:2010CSHPB
Lipid_bilayer
Great changes in evolutionary history
included: Replicating molecules: change to populations of molecules in protocells Independent replicators leading to chromosomes RNA as gene and enzyme
Megaevolution
American microbiologist (1928–2012)
Gibson in a 1980 paper, these organisms, or progenotes, were imagined as protocells with very low complexity due to their error-prone translation apparatus
Carl_Woese
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Helper_dependent_virus
to the formation of the first cell membranes that are fundamental to protocells and the origin of life. Scientists report the extinction of Gigantopithecus
2024_in_science
Sequence in a genome
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Origin_of_replication
Genus of bacteria
earth are the same 0.05 μm size as the supposed nanobacteria on Mars. Protocell Mycoplasma — smallest known bacteria (300 nm) Nanoarchaeum — smallest
Nanobacterium
Abstract model for the fundamental unit of life
as it provides a philosophy of evolutionary units. The chemoton is a protocell that grows by metabolism, reproduces by biological fission, and has at
Chemoton
American biologist
by the presence of weak cation chelator like citric acid in primitive protocells. Szostak developed functional information, a concept for quantifying the
Jack_W._Szostak
similarly to classical quasispecies such as RNA viruses. Abiogenesis Protocell Segré, Daniel; Lancet*, Doron; Kedem, Ora; Pilpel, Yitzhak (1998-10-01)
Gard_model
Rotational self-propulsion of organisms
problem Molecular evolution Astrobiology Phylogenetics Tree Polymorphism Protocell Systematics Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance Category Portal
Rotating locomotion in living systems
Rotating_locomotion_in_living_systems
Hypothetical endosymbiont ancestor of all mitochondria
the study. Abiogenesis Endosymbiotic theory Hydrogenosome Midichloria Protocell Rickettsiales Viale, A M; Arakaki, A K (21 March 1994). "The chaperone
Proto-mitochondrion
Hypothetical Earth environment for the origin of life
key to the hot spring hypothesis for the origin of life, which suggests protocells developed through a multistep process in which spontaneously formed lipid
Warm_little_pond
Taxonomic clade
from filarchaeotes, i.e. within Archaea (the two-domain view above). Protocell Cavalier-Smith T (March 2002). "The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes
Neomura
American medical doctor & academic
2016, Kauffman wrote a children's story, "Patrick, Rupert, Sly & Gus Protocells", a narrative about unprestatable niche creation in the biosphere, which
Stuart_Kauffman
Award
Best Action Game Assault Android Cactus Witch Beam Best Platformer Game Protocell Team Primordia Best “Other” Game Cube & Star: A Love Story Doppler Interactive
Intel_Level_Up
Period during the evolution of the first cells
Pomiankowski, Andrew; Lane, Nick (2017-12-05). "The origin of heredity in protocells". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
Darwinian_threshold
Cell organelle in a few species
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Mitosome
Chemical reactions which turn into modern metabolism
as 'metabolism'" as "the set of catalysts/catalytic assemblies that a protocell would have required to process resources into its own building blocks
Proto-metabolism
Mitochondrion-derived organelle
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Hydrogenosome
Species of archaeon
thioester to complete the process. In such an environment, a primitive "protocell" could easily produce energy through this metabolic pathway, excreting
Methanosarcina_acetivorans
English architect and theorist (born 1961)
on to guest edit several more editions of AD including the influential Protocell Architecture with his former PhD student, Rachel Armstrong. From 2008
Neil_Spiller
American anthropologist (1944–2021)
Three Modes of Collaboration". In Bedau; Parke (eds.). The Ethics of Protocells: Moral and Social Implications of Creating Life in the Laboratory. Cambridge
Paul_Rabinow
DNA region replicating from a single origin
universal common ancestor Earliest known life forms ?RNA life Ribozyme †Protocell Coacervate Proteinoid Sulphobe Research Model lipid bilayer Jeewanu See
Replicon_(genetics)
American biophysicist (1927–2016)
Bettina and Deamer, David W. (1988). “The chemical logic of a minimum protocell”, Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere, Vol. 18, Issue 3 (September
Harold_J._Morowitz
Moldovan bishop
hieromonk and called "eparchial missionary" (1902), later he was ordained protocell and archimandrite (1909). One of his merits was obtaining the establishment
Gurie_Grosu
synthesis of amino acids, nucleobases, lipids, and other building blocks of protocells and metabolisms is still poorly understood. Proposed reactions that produce
Cyanosulfidic prebiotic synthesis
Cyanosulfidic_prebiotic_synthesis
in the earliest known cells developed in separate energised vesicles, protocells, where they were produced cooperatively with certain bases of the nucleic
Evolution of metal ions in biological systems
Evolution_of_metal_ions_in_biological_systems
proved" as no confirmatory reports by other scientists exist. Jeewanu Protocell Kalinenko VO (1963). "Biopodobnyye struktury" [Bio-Like Structures]. Nauka
Bio-like_structure
Unresolved source of phosphorus in prebiotic chemistry
on Earth". www.biology.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 2025-12-08. "Lab-created 'protocells' provide clues to how life arose". www.science.org. Retrieved 2025-12-09
Phosphate problem of the origin of life
Phosphate_problem_of_the_origin_of_life
and propose that the studied Archean microfossils were liposome-like protocells that had mechanisms for energy conservation, but not for regulating cell
2024_in_paleontology
American cell biologist
primitive vesicles, providing a possible mechanism for the emergence of protocells. First Life: Discovering the Connections between Stars, Cells, and How
David_W._Deamer
American synthetic biologist
Adamala and Szostak demonstrated non enzymatic RNA replication in primitive protocells is only possibly in presence of weak cation chelator like citric acid
Kate_Adamala
molecules (hydroxy acids) that can assemble themselves into possible protocells under conditions similar to those of the early Earth. 25 July – Astronomers
2019_in_science
Indian biomedical engineer
(2019). "Engineered ribonucleoprotein granules inhibit translation in protocells". Molecular Cell. 75 (1): 66–75.e5. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2019.05.010.
Ashutosh_Chilkoti
Cyclic sequence of self-reproducing single cycles
Martin A.; Doebeli, Michael (9 May 2013). "Selection for Replicases in Protocells". PLOS Computational Biology. 9 (5) e1003051. Bibcode:2013PLSCB...9E3051B
Hypercycle_(chemistry)
ISBN 978-1-4214-4128-3. Joyce, Gerald F.; Szostak, Jack W. (September 2018). "Protocells and RNA Self-Replication". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
Genes-first_hypothesis
Polymer materials scientist
coacervate droplets suspended in deionized water could potentially act as protocells for the origins of life. His most-cited research article demonstrated
Alamgir_Karim
PROTOCELL
PROTOCELL
PROTOCELL
PROTOCELL
Boy/Male
Tamil
The Sun
Girl/Female
Indian
Utricle
Boy/Male
Buddhist, Indian
Calm Prefecture
Boy/Male
French Latin
Green; flourishing.
Male
Italian
Italian form of Latin Stephanus, STEFANO means "crown."
Male
Norse
Old Norse byname SKÃRI means "sea-mew," another name for the common seagull.
Surname or Lastname
English
English : topographic name from Old Norse sker ‘rock’, later dialect scar ‘rocky cliff’.
Male
Slovene
Pet form of Slovene Jernej, NEJC means "son of Talmai."
Male
Hebrew
(חֲוִילָה) Hebrew name CHAVIYLAH means "circle." In the bible, this is the name of a part of Eden through which the river Pison flowed, and the name of a son of Cush after whom a district in Arabia was named. Havilah is the Anglicized form.
Girl/Female
Hindu
Queen of a womens kingdom
PROTOCELL
PROTOCELL
PROTOCELL
PROTOCELL
PROTOCELL