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Round shield used by the Roman army
A parma or parmula (the diminutive of parma) was a type of round shield used by the Roman army, especially during the later period of imperial history
Parma_(shield)
City in Emilia-Romagna, Italy
meaning The other side of the stream. Parma's Etruscan name was adapted by Romans to describe the round shield called Parma. Historical affiliations Roman Republic
Parma
Type of shield used in Ancient Rome
shell of a turtle. Ancient Rome portal Clipeus (shield) Imago clipeata (shield portrait) Parma (shield) Guttman, Jon (13 August 2011). "Roman Gladius and
Scutum
Topics referred to by the same term
Look up parma or Parma in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Parma is a city in northern Italy. Parma may also refer to: The Duchy of Parma, a feudal name
Parma_(disambiguation)
Spanish football manager
Spanish professional football manager who is the head coach of Serie A club Parma. Born in Palma de Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Cuesta played for Santa Catalina
Carlos Cuesta (football manager)
Carlos_Cuesta_(football_manager)
Item of armour carried to intercept attacks or projectiles
Italy, the targa, parma, and rotella were used by common people, fencers and even knights. The development of plate armour made shields less and less common
Shield
The 2025–26 season is Zebre Parma's fifth season in the United Rugby Championship, and their 14th season of professional rugby. Along with competing in
2025–26_Zebre_Parma_season
The 2024–25 season is Zebre Parma's fourth season in the United Rugby Championship, and their 13th season of professional rugby. Along with competing
2024–25_Zebre_Parma_season
Rugby union competition season
Glasgow Warriors sealed their third Scottish-Italian Shield with a 14–6 victory over Zebre Parma. Final standings: Source: UnitedRugby.com Rules for classification:
2024–25 United Rugby Championship
2024–25_United_Rugby_Championship
City in Ohio, United States
Parma is a city in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, United States. It is a suburb south of Cleveland. The population was 81,146 at the 2020 census, and was estimated
Parma,_Ohio
Italian rugby union club, based in Parma
debut in 2002–03 in the European Shield. GranDucato Parma Rugby was formed in June 2010 through the merger of Gran Parma Rugby, Rugby Colorno and Rugby
Gran_Ducato_Parma_Rugby
Argentine footballer (born 1975)
was the world's most expensive player when he was bought by Lazio from Parma in 2000 for €56 million (£35.5 million). He was top scorer in the 2000–01
Hernán_Crespo
Hand-held protective device
aspis buckler clipeus dhal parma taming targe Mayan and Aztec shield viking shield yetholm-type shield Captain America's shield Everson, T. (2004). Warfare
Round_shield
Type of Ancient Roman gladiator
the various types of gladiator who used a small shield called a parma. Due to having a small shield parmularii would wear shin armour (ocreae) on both
Parmularius_(gladiator)
Roman civilisation from the 8th century BC to the 5th century AD
Parabiago Plate Parallel Lives Paraphernalia Parazonium Parentalia Parilia Parma (shield) Parmularius (gladiator) Parthian Monument Parthian war of Caracalla
Index of ancient Rome–related articles
Index_of_ancient_Rome–related_articles
Italian rugby union club, based in Parma
Zebre Parma (Italian pronunciation: [ˈdzɛbre], meaning "Zebras") are an Italian professional rugby union team competing in the United Rugby Championship
Zebre_Parma
American soccer player (born 2005)
American professional soccer player who plays as a midfielder for Serie A club Parma, on loan from Major League Soccer club Inter Miami, and the United States
Benjamin_Cremaschi
Regional Shield), but as they had already secured the place through league placing, it did not materially alter the overall list of qualifiers. Zebre Parma, Dragons
2022–23 United Rugby Championship
2022–23_United_Rugby_Championship
Italian rugby union club, based in Parma
Parma Rugby F.C. are an Italian rugby union club. They are based in Parma in Emilia-Romagna. They were founded in 2010 by the merger of Rugby Parma F
Crociati_Parma_Rugby_FC
Romanian footballer (born 1980)
career at Inter Milan's youth teams before being appointed as manager of Parma in February 2025. In June 2025, he was appointed as the head coach of Inter
Cristian_Chivu
Rugby competition
their victory in their regional shield for the 2025-26 season following Round 10 and a 26-21 victory over Zebre Parma. It is Glasgow's fourth, and fourth
2025–26 United Rugby Championship
2025–26_United_Rugby_Championship
Italian rugby union club
rugby sector in the Vitellianense Cebogas Multisports Club by some ex Rugby Parma F.C. players. They started in the lowest possible league, Serie D. In 1980–81
Rugby_Viadana
The 2026–27 season is Zebre Parma's sixth season in the United Rugby Championship, and in all formats of the competition. Along with competing in the
2026–27_Zebre_Parma_season
International rugby union competition
pools: The Irish Shield pool (featuring the four Irish teams), the Welsh Shield pool (featuring the four Welsh teams), the South African Shield pool (featuring
2023–24 United Rugby Championship
2023–24_United_Rugby_Championship
Type of shield used by Ancient Greek and Roman soldiers
adopted the auxiliary oval (and sometimes round or hexagonal) shield (parma or clipeus). Shields, from examples found at Dura-Europos and Nydam Mose, were
Clipeus
shows a papal ombrellino with the keys of Saint Peter (for the Duchy of Parma), while the lower portion shows the white eagle of the House of Este (for
Coat of arms of Napoleonic Italy
Coat_of_arms_of_Napoleonic_Italy
Rugby competition
The European Shield (known as the Parker Pen Shield for sponsorship reasons) was a repechage tournament for teams knocked out in the first round of the
European_Shield
French footballer (born 2001)
French professional footballer who plays as a forward for Serie A club Parma. Elphege was born on 9 January 2001. Born in Saint-Denis, France, he is
Nesta_Elphege
Ancient Roman soldier's equipment
velites' equipment consisted of a parma, javelin, sword and helmet. Later, the parma was replaced by the scutum. A light shield of steel and leather, the name
Roman military personal equipment
Roman_military_personal_equipment
2013. "Parma refuse to travel". BBC. 9 January 2002. Archived from the original on May 9, 2022. Retrieved 26 January 2013. "Parker Pen Shield 2001/2"
2001–02 European Challenge Cup pool stage
2001–02_European_Challenge_Cup_pool_stage
English football club season
the club also participated in the FA Cup, the EFL Cup, the FA Community Shield and the UEFA Champions League. On 30 May 2026, after a 5th place league
2025–26_Liverpool_F.C._season
Italian football manager (born 1959)
manager. He played as a midfielder and began his career with Italian club Parma, helping the club get promoted to Serie B in the 1978–79 season. He moved
Carlo_Ancelotti
giocatore delle Zebre Parma per la stagione 2025-26" [Marco Zanon is a new Zebre Parma player for the 2025-26 season]. Zebre Parma.it. 29 July 2025. Retrieved
2025–26_Benetton_Rugby_season
Italian football manager (born 1966)
Diego Maradona and Careca where he won the 1989–90 Serie A title, and at Parma where he won the Italian Super Cup and the 1994–95 UEFA Cup. He later moved
Gianfranco_Zola
stripes. The colours were as in the time of the Farnese whose shield the Bourbons-Parma had placed in their coat of arms. 1850-1851 The national flag
Flag_of_Emilia-Romagna
its foundation. Along with competing in the URC and its Scottish Italian Shield competition, the club will also participate in European competition for
2026–27_Benetton_Rugby_season
Natal Rugby Union. Along with competing in the URC and its South African Shield competition (the latter of which they enter as champions), the club will
2025–26 Sharks (rugby union) season
2025–26_Sharks_(rugby_union)_season
Italian rugby union club, based in Reggio nell'Emilia
GIOCATORI IN OTTIME CONDIZIONI"5". Zebre Parma (in Italian). Retrieved 24 July 2024. "Academy". Zebre Parma. "Filippo Bozzoni in prestito al Valorugby
Valorugby_Emilia
sword or spear. They had scale armour; a medium-sized round cavalry shield (parma equestris); and a brimmed helmet with two decorative feathers and no
List_of_Roman_gladiator_types
season of professional rugby. Along with competing in the URC and its Welsh Shield competition, the club will also participate in the 2025-26 European Rugby
2025–26 Ospreys (rugby union) season
2025–26_Ospreys_(rugby_union)_season
Italian rugby union competition
2003 Viadana 2004 Calvisano 2005 Benetton Treviso 2006 Parma 2007 Viadana 2008 Parma 2009 Parma 2010 Benetton Treviso 2011 Rugby Roma Olimpic 2012 Calvisano
Coppa_Italia_(rugby_union)
Annual rugby union competition in Europe and South Africa
regional pools: The Irish Shield pool, the Welsh Shield pool, the South African Shield pool and the Scottish and Italian Shield pool for the purpose of
United_Rugby_Championship
Italian footballer (born 1987)
Serie B in 2006, and soon spent loan spells with Italian clubs Empoli and Parma. He signed for Toronto FC in 2015, a deal which made him the league's highest
Sebastian_Giovinco
English football match
Stadium, which first hosted the Shield in 1974. Manchester United winger Jesper Blomqvist, who had signed from Parma just under three weeks earlier, was
1998_FA_Charity_Shield
competitive rugby. Along with competing in the URC and its Scottish-Italian Shield competition, the club also participated in the 2024-25 European Rugby Champions
2024–25_Benetton_Rugby_season
Austrian politician (born 1961)
disasters. He was president of the cultural protection organization Blue Shield International from 2008 until August 2020. In 1992/1993, he hosted a TV
Karl_von_Habsburg
Heraldic charge
diamond-shaped rhombus charge (an object that can be placed on the field of the shield), usually somewhat narrower than it is tall. It is to be distinguished in
Lozenge_(heraldry)
English footballer (born 1962)
goal in Arsenal's 1994 European Cup Winners' Cup final victory against Parma. Smith was capped 13 times for the England national team and represented
Alan Smith (footballer, born 1962)
Alan_Smith_(footballer,_born_1962)
American actor (born 1985)
married Argentine film director Lelia Parma in 2007. In 2017, they welcomed their first child, a son named Benjamin Parma Ritter. In 2020, they welcomed their
Tyler_Ritter
Holy Roman Emperor from 1745 to 1765
Francis would become governor of the Austrian Netherlands. Elisabeth of Parma had also wanted the Grand Duchy of Tuscany for her son Charles III of Spain;
Francis_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor
starting from Northern Italy, and the headquarters are in the province of Parma at the church of Santa Maria Maddalena in the locality of Toccalmatto di
Templari_Cattolici_d'Italia
Professional men's rugby union competition in Italy
Olimpic 1949 Rugby Roma Olimpic 1950 Parma 1951 Rovigo 1952 Rovigo 1953 Rovigo 1954 Rovigo 1955 Parma 1956 Treviso 1957 Parma 1958 Fiamme Oro Padova 1959 Fiamme
Serie_A_Elite_(rugby_union)
1951 science fiction novel by Isaac Asimov
lands at the Korell spaceport, a man identifying himself as "Reverend Jord Parma" appears, saying he is a Foundation missionary hunted by the Korellians
Foundation_(Asimov_novel)
Italian football manager (born 1951)
management in Italy in 2007, where he encountered mixed success with spells at Parma, Juventus, Roma and Inter Milan. In 2012, he was hired to manage Ligue 1
Claudio_Ranieri
United Rugby Championship. Along with competing in the URC and its Welsh Shield competition, the club also participate in the 2025-26 EPCR Challenge Cup
2025–26_Cardiff_Rugby_season
Reigning house of the Kingdom of Spain
Amadeo I, both the colours and the heraldry were respected, although the shield with the royal arms of the Bourbon-Anjou dynasty was changed to those of
House_of_Bourbon-Anjou
Italian rugby union club
the Italian domestic league Top10. They are based in Colorno (Province of Parma), in Emilia-Romagna. They were founded in 1975. Rugby Colorno was founded
Rugby_Colorno
formation of Serie A in 1929. The Scudetto (Italian: scudetto, "little shield", plural: scudetti) is worn on the jersey of the club that won the Italian
List of Italian football champions
List_of_Italian_football_champions
Australian cricketer
Dean Parma Waugh (born 3 February 1969) is a former Australian first-class cricketer who played a match for New South Wales and also represented South
Dean_Waugh
Rugby team
Zebre Parma Valerio Siciliano** Hooker Brive Destiny Aminu Prop Benetton Paolo Buonfiglio ** Prop Zebre Parma Luca Franceschetto Prop Zebre Parma Marcos
Italy A national rugby union team
Italy_A_national_rugby_union_team
Duchy of Parma and Piacenza A horizontal bicolour of yellow and blue. 1849 Revolutionary flag of Brescia 1850–1851 Fourth flag of the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza
List_of_Italian_flags
Italian football club
In the final round, Udinese finished first and was promoted, alongside Parma, to First Division. In the following season, Udinese finished 10th and was
Udinese_Calcio
Association football league in Italy
achieving a continental treble in 2009–10. Alongside Roma, Lazio, historically Parma and Fiorentina but now replaced by Napoli and Atalanta, these clubs form
Serie_A
Dutch revolt leader (1533–1584)
originally served the Habsburgs as a member of the court of Margaret of Parma, governor of the Spanish Netherlands. Unhappy with the centralisation of
William_the_Silent
Transvaal Rugby Union. Along with competing in the URC and its South African Shield competition, the club will also participate in the 2025–26 European Rugby
2025–26 Lions (United Rugby Championship) season
2025–26_Lions_(United_Rugby_Championship)_season
Second tier of Italy's men's rugby union championship
round robin Piacenza 1997-98 CUS Padova N/A Parma 1998-99 Bologna round robin Viadana 1999-00 Gran Parma round robin Livorno 2000-01 Bologna round robin
Serie_A_(rugby_union)
Rugby union competition for European clubs
The European Rugby Continental Shield (formerly the European Rugby Challenge Cup Qualifying Competition) was a rugby union competition, organised by European
European Rugby Continental Shield
European_Rugby_Continental_Shield
Turkish sports club
2003–04 in which the side eliminated Blackburn Rovers, Sporting CP and Parma before bowing out to eventual champions Valencia in the fourth round. League
Gençlerbirliği_S.K.
within Italy. Two Italian professional teams (Benetton Treviso and Zebre Parma) compete in United Rugby Championship (URC), a league that also includes
Rugby_union_in_Italy
Middle Neolithic (i.e., 4500–4000 B.C.) sites in the areas of Piacenza, Parma, and Forlì in Emilia-Romagna; as well as other sites near the Annone and
History_of_cannabis_in_Italy
Italian rugby union team
Cuttitta Cup 1995–97 FIRA Trophy Aironi (disbanded) Benetton Treviso Dogi (disbanded) Lupi (disbanded) Zebre Parma Clubs Players Coaches Referees Venues
Rugby_Club_Valpolicella
French rugby union club
the European Shield, and contested the final. Played in May 2004, Montpellier defeated Italian club Viadana 25 points to 19 to win the Shield. The club barely
Montpellier_Hérault_Rugby
Italian rugby union club, based in Padua
Cuttitta Cup 1995–97 FIRA Trophy Aironi (disbanded) Benetton Treviso Dogi (disbanded) Lupi (disbanded) Zebre Parma Clubs Players Coaches Referees Venues
Petrarca_Rugby
Association football club in Italy
finish as runners-up above Venezia with a three-point lead and just below Parma, the Serie B champion. It was originally unclear whether Como, which became
Como_1907
shield (European) Lantern shield (Italian) Parma, parmula (Roman) Peltarion (Greek) Rattan shield (Korean, Chinese) Round shield Scuta, rectangular, tower
List of premodern combat weapons
List_of_premodern_combat_weapons
Italian monarchy ruled by the House of Savoy (1720–1861)
clear that Victor Emmanuel would accept this arrangement. On 5 March 1860, Parma, Piacenza, Tuscany, Modena, and Romagna voted in referendums to join the
Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)
Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720–1861)
PSV Eindhoven 2025–26 football season
domestic league, the club participated in the KNVB Cup, the Johan Cruyff Shield, and the UEFA Champions League. As of 31 January 2026 Note: Flags indicate
2025–26_PSV_Eindhoven_season
senator (2008–2013). Microwave Dave, 79, American blues musician. Bruno Parma, 84, Slovene chess grandmaster. Robert J. Plemmons, 87, American mathematician
Deaths_in_February_2026
Welsh–Scottish League. Along with competing in the URC and its Scottish–Italian Shield competition, the club will also participate in the 2026–27 European Rugby
2026–27 Glasgow Warriors season
2026–27_Glasgow_Warriors_season
Inter Miami CF 2025 soccer season
Club World Cup for the first time. The club were the defending Supporters' Shield champions, having set a record for most points in MLS history during the
2025_Inter_Miami_CF_season
Spanish football manager (born 1971)
double. At the end of the season, Barcelona rejected offers from Roma and Parma (of around 300 million pesetas) for Guardiola. After prolonged and complicated
Pep_Guardiola
English footballer and pundit (born 1968)
Arsenal win its first European trophy in 24 years as the Gunners defeated Parma in Copenhagen to win the 1993–94 European Cup Winners' Cup. Merson's career
Paul_Merson
Middle age military corps
Montferrat, certain towns of the Plain of the Po, including Pavia, Piacenza and Parma, and Corsica, but were formed and organized in Genoa. Commanders of the
Genoese_crossbowmen
Habsburg monarch from 1740 to 1780
Carinthia, Carniola, Gorizia and Gradisca, Austrian Silesia, Tyrol, Styria, and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, and
Maria_Theresa
Irish Rugby Football Union. Along with competing in the URC and its Irish Shield competition, the club will also participate in the 2025–26 EPCR Challenge
2025–26_Connacht_Rugby_season
Holy Roman Emperor from 1790 to 1792
Marie Antoinette of France, Queen Maria Carolina, Duchess Maria Amalia of Parma, and Emperor Joseph II. Leopold was a moderate proponent of enlightened
Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor
Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor
Least weasel from Europe Stoat from Europe Ferret from Europe Wallabies: Parma wallaby - population on Kawau Island Red-necked wallaby Swamp wallaby -
List_of_introduced_species
Volleyball competition
1981–82: CSKA Moscow 1982–83: CSKA Moscow 1983–84: Pallavolo Parma 1984–85: Pallavolo Parma 1985–86: CSKA Moscow 1986–87: CSKA Moscow 1987–88: CSKA Moscow
CEV_Champions_League
professional rugby. Along with competing in the URC and its South African Shield competition, the club will also participate in the 2025-26 European Rugby
2025–26_Stormers_season
Former English footballer, coach, and scout
seasons. Keown missed out on Arsenal's Cup Winners' Cup Final win over Parma the following year through injury although he did play a part in the overall
Martin_Keown
Swiss footballer (born 1995)
"Inter cruise to Serie A title triumph after Thuram sparks victory over Parma". The Guardian. 3 May 2026. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 3 May 2026. "Inter
Manuel_Akanji
English footballer (born 1966)
Arsenal to their first European trophy in 24 years by defeating favourites Parma 1–0 in the 1994 European Cup Winners' Cup final in Copenhagen. Despite this
Tony_Adams
Italian rugby union club, based in Mogliano Veneto
Rugby. July 21, 2024. "L'AMICHEVOLE DI FIRENZE TRA BENETTON RUGBY E ZEBRE PARMA FINISCE IN PAREGGIO SUL 19-19". Benetton Rugby. November 21, 2024. "Prima
Mogliano_Rugby
Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster; two Italian teams: Benetton and Zebre Parma; two Scottish teams: Edinburgh and Glasgow Warriors (with Scottish and Italian
2021–22 United Rugby Championship
2021–22_United_Rugby_Championship
Metropolitan Statistical Area in the United States
Fruitland Payette Hidden Springs Homedale Marsing New Plymouth Nyssa, Oregon Parma Wilder Vale, Oregon Adrian, Oregon Crouch Greenleaf Horseshoe Bend Idaho
Boise_metropolitan_area
Cartilage that makes up the laryngeal skeleton
shape. Numerous shields were used by the Roman soldiers, such as the pelta, parma and clypeus. In contrast to the scutum, these shields were round. Despite
Thyroid_cartilage
Species of slug
base of the right upper tentacle. The shield is oblong, about one third of the total length of the animal. The shield is rounded in front, angular behind
Limax_maximus
Divine or angelic race in Tolkien's writings
Tongues in The Lord of the Rings". Parma Eldalamberon (17): 150. Tolkien, J. R. R. (2009). "Tengwesta Qenderinwa". Parma Eldalamberon (18): 72. Whittingham
Valar
English footballer
Zaragoza (having been an unused substitute in the Gunners' 1–0 triumph over Parma in 1993–94). After the arrival of Arsène Wenger as Arsenal's manager in
Ray_Parlour
Italian rugby union club
Cuttitta Cup 1995–97 FIRA Trophy Aironi (disbanded) Benetton Treviso Dogi (disbanded) Lupi (disbanded) Zebre Parma Clubs Players Coaches Referees Venues
Amatori_Catania
PARMA SHIELD
PARMA SHIELD
Girl/Female
Hindu
Best, The Goddess who is above the five elements
Boy/Male
Hindu
Deed, Action
Girl/Female
Assamese, Gujarati, Hindu, Indian, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Telugu
Knowledge of Truth
Boy/Male
Muslim
Deed, Action
Boy/Male
Hindu
Festival, Strong
Girl/Female
Indian, Sanskrit
Festival; Festive
Girl/Female
Sanskrit American
Fate.
Girl/Female
Latin
Named for the Furies.
Female
Hindi/Indian
(पदà¥à¤®) Hindi unisex name PADMA means "lotus flower."
Girl/Female
Indian Sanskrit
Destiny.
Girl/Female
Muslim
Captivating
Girl/Female
Assamese, Bengali, Celebrity, Gujarati, Hindu, Indian, Jain, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Traditional
Goddess Lakshmi; Lotus
Boy/Male
Arabic, Hindu, Indian, Muslim
Karma
Boy/Male
Hindu
The best
Girl/Female
Bengali, Gujarati, Hindu, Indian, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Sanskrit, Telugu
The Best
Girl/Female
Hindu, Indian
Angel
Girl/Female
Hindu
Leaf
Girl/Female
Hindu
The best, Knowledge of truth
Girl/Female
Latin American
Palm tree.
Girl/Female
Hindu
The best, Knowledge of truth
PARMA SHIELD
PARMA SHIELD
Boy/Male
Muslim
Servant of the wise.
Girl/Female
American, Australian, French, German, Turkish
Sea
Boy/Male
Indian, Kannada, Tamil
Gift of God
Male
Spanish
Spanish form of Greek Michaēl, MIGUEL means "who is like God?"
Girl/Female
Muslim/Islamic
Night
Male
English
Short form of English Eugene, GENE means "well born."
Boy/Male
American, British, English, German
Old; Wise Counsellor; Old Ruler; Long Term Ruler
Boy/Male
Australian, French, German, Italian, Latin, Portuguese
White; From the City Alba
Boy/Male
Sikh
One whose life is full of elixir of naam, Defender, Protector
Boy/Male
Hindu
Universal whole
PARMA SHIELD
PARMA SHIELD
PARMA SHIELD
PARMA SHIELD
PARMA SHIELD
n.
A white crystalline nitrogenous substance (C2H4N4); -- called also dicyandiamide.
n.
A genus of plants of the Spurge family, containing but one species (R. communis), the castor-oil plant. The fruit is three-celled, and contains three large seeds from which castor oil iss expressed. See Palma Christi.
n.
Any small moth of the genus Aspidisca, whose larva makes a shieldlike covering for itself out of bits of leaves.
n.
A figure by which an adjective or verb, which agrees with a nearer word, is, by way of supplement, referred also to another more remote; as, "hic illius arma, hic currus fuit;" where fuit, which agrees directly with currus, is referred also to arma.
n.
A piece of Turkish money, usually copper, the fortieth part of a piaster, or about one ninth of a cent.
n.
One's acts considered as fixing one's lot in the future existence. (Theos.) The doctrine of fate as the inflexible result of cause and effect; the theory of inevitable consequence.
a.
Of or pertaining to Parma in Italy.
n.
Same as Para.
a.
Destitute of a shield, or of protection.
n.
The palma Christi. (Jonah iv. 6, margin, and Douay version, note.)
a.
Of, pertaining to, or derived from, the castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis, or Palma Christi); -- formerly used to designate an acid now called ricinoleic acid.